Unlocking the Benefits of Fasting: A Review of its Impact on Various Biological Systems and Human Health


Cite item

Full Text

Abstract

Fasting has gained significant attention in recent years for its potential health benefits in various body systems. This review aims to comprehensively examine the effects of fasting on human health, specifically focusing on its impact on different body’s physiological systems. The cardiovascular system plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, and fasting has shown promising effects in improving cardiovascular health markers such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and triglyceride levels. Additionally, fasting has been suggested to enhance insulin sensitivity, promote weight loss, and improve metabolic health, thus offering potential benefits to individuals with diabetes and metabolic disorders. Furthermore, fasting can boost immune function, reduce inflammation, enhance autophagy, and support the body's defense against infections, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Fasting has also demonstrated a positive effect on the brain and nervous system. It has been associated with neuroprotective properties, improving cognitive function, and reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, besides the ability of increasing the lifespan. Hence, understanding the potential advantages of fasting can provide valuable insights for individuals and healthcare professionals alike in promoting health and wellbeing. The data presented here may have significant implications for the development of therapeutic approaches and interventions using fasting as a potential preventive and therapeutic strategy.

About the authors

Rawan Mackieh

Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences,, Lebanese University

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Nadia Al-Bakkar

Faculty of Health Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Beirut Arab University,

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Milena Kfoury

Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Nathalie Okdeh

Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Hervé Pietra

Fasting, Association Esprit Jeûne & Fasting Spirit

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Rabih Roufayel

College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Christian Legros

, Univ Angers

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Ziad Fajloun

Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences,, Lebanese University,

Author for correspondence.
Email: info@benthamscience.net

Jean-Marc Sabatier

CNRS, INP, Inst Neurophysiopathol, Aix-- Marseille Université,

Author for correspondence.
Email: info@benthamscience.net

References

  1. Attinà, A.; Leggeri, C.; Paroni, R.; Pivari, F.; Dei Cas, M.; Mingione, A.; Dri, M.; Marchetti, M.; Di Renzo, L. Fasting: How to guide. Nutrients, 2021, 13(5), 1570.
  2. Bagherniya, M.; Butler, A.E.; Barreto, G.E.; Sahebkar, A. The effect of fasting or calorie restriction on autophagy induction: A review of the literature. Ageing Res. Rev., 2018, 47, 183-197. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2018.08.004 PMID: 30172870
  3. Nygren, J. The metabolic effects of fasting and surgery. Baillieres. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol., 2006, 20(3), 429-438. doi: 10.1016/j.bpa.2006.02.004 PMID: 17080694
  4. Castro-Sepúlveda, M.; Morio, B.; Tuñón-Suárez, M.; Jannas-Vela, S.; Díaz-Castro, F.; Rieusset, J.; Zbinden-Foncea, H. The fasting-feeding metabolic transition regulates mitochondrial dynamics. FASEB J., 2021, 35(10), e21891.
  5. Wang, Y.; Wu, R. The effect of fasting on human metabolism and psychological health. Dis. Markers, 2022, 2022, 1-7. doi: 10.1155/2022/5653739 PMID: 35035610
  6. Chen, L.; Tian, F.Y.; Hu, X.H.; Wu, J.W.; Xu, W.D.; Huang, Q. Intermittent fasting in type 2 diabetes: from fundamental science to clinical applications. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2023, 27(1), 333-351. PMID: 36647882
  7. Dong, T.A.; Sandesara, P.B.; Dhindsa, D.S.; Mehta, A.; Arneson, L.C.; Dollar, A.L.; Taub, P.R.; Sperling, L.S. Intermittent fasting: A heart healthy dietary pattern? Am. J. Med., 2020, 133(8), 901-907. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.03.030 PMID: 32330491
  8. Maughan, R.J.; Fallah, J.; Coyle, E.F. The effects of fasting on metabolism and performance. BJSM, 2010, 44(7)
  9. Sarri, K.O.; Tzanakis, N.E.; Linardakis, M.K.; Mamalakis, G.D.; Kafatos, A.G. Effects of Greek Orthodox Christian Church fasting on serum lipids and obesity. BMC Public Health, 2003, 3(1), 16. PMID: 12753698
  10. Quinton, R.K.; Ciccazzo, M. Influences on Eastern Orthodox Christian fasting beliefs and practices. Ecol. Food Nutr., 2007, 46(5-6), 469-491. doi: 10.1080/03670240701486768
  11. Sarri, K.O.; Linardakis, M.K.; Bervanaki, F.N.; Tzanakis, N.E.; Kafatos, A.G. Greek Orthodox fasting rituals: a hidden characteristic of the Mediterranean diet of Crete. Br. J. Nutr., 2004, 92(2), 277-284. doi: 10.1079/BJN20041197 PMID: 15333159
  12. Negm, M.; Bahaa, A.; Farrag, A.; Lithy, R.M.; Badary, H.A.; Essam, M.; Kamel, S.; Sakr, M.; Abd El Aaty, W.; Shamkh, M.; Basiony, A.; Dawoud, I.; Shehab, H. Effect of Ramadan intermittent fasting on inflammatory markers, disease severity, depression, and quality of life in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases: A prospective cohort study. BMC Gastroenterol., 2022, 22(1), 203. doi: 10.1186/s12876-022-02272-3 PMID: 35462542
  13. Al-barha, N.S.; Aljaloud, K.S. The effect of ramadan fasting on body composition and metabolic syndrome in apparently healthy men. Am. J. Men Health, 2019, 13(1), 1557988318816925. doi: 10.1177/1557988318816925 PMID: 30541365
  14. Zouhal, H.; Bagheri, R.; Triki, R.; Saeidi, A.; Wong, A.; Hackney, A.C.; Laher, I.; Suzuki, K.; Ben Abderrahman, A. Effects of ramadan intermittent fasting on gut hormones and body composition in males with obesity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2020, 17(15), 5600. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17155600 PMID: 32756479
  15. Grindrod, K.; Alsabbagh, W. Managing medications during Ramadan fasting. Can. Pharm. J., 2017, 150(3), 146-149. doi: 10.1177/1715163517700840 PMID: 28507649
  16. Moothadeth, A.; Waqar, S.; Ghouri, N.; Iqbal, Z.; Alam, J.; Ahmed, S.; Abbas, S.Z. Fasting during Ramadan and the COVID-19 pandemic. Occup. Med., 2020, 70(5), 306-308. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqaa103 PMID: 32428236
  17. Varady, K.A.; Bhutani, S.; Klempel, M.C.; Kroeger, C.M.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Haus, J.M.; Hoddy, K.K.; Calvo, Y. Alternate day fasting for weight loss in normal weight and overweight subjects: A randomized controlled trial. Nutr. J., 2013, 12(1), 146. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-146 PMID: 24215592
  18. Bowen, J.; Brindal, E.; James-Martin, G.; Noakes, M. Randomized trial of a high protein, partial meal replacement program with or without alternate day fasting: Similar effects on weight loss, retention status, nutritional, metabolic, and behavioral outcomes. Nutrients, 2018, 10(9), 1145. doi: 10.3390/nu10091145 PMID: 30142886
  19. Razavi, R.; Parvaresh, A.; Abbasi, B.; Yaghoobloo, K.; Hassanzadeh, A.; Mohammadifard, N.; Clark, C.C.T.; Morteza Safavi, S. The alternate-day fasting diet is a more effective approach than a calorie restriction diet on weight loss and hs-CRP levels. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res., 2021, 91(3-4), 242-250. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831/a000623 PMID: 32003649
  20. Cai, H.; Qin, Y.L.; Shi, Z.Y.; Chen, J.H.; Zeng, M.J.; Zhou, W.; Chen, R.Q.; Chen, Z.Y. Effects of alternate-day fasting on body weight and dyslipidaemia in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A randomised controlled trial. BMC Gastroenterol., 2019, 19(1), 219. doi: 10.1186/s12876-019-1132-8 PMID: 31852444
  21. Cheng, C.W.; Adams, G.B.; Perin, L.; Wei, M.; Zhou, X.; Lam, B.S.; Da Sacco, S.; Mirisola, M.; Quinn, D.I.; Dorff, T.B.; Kopchick, J.J.; Longo, V.D. Prolonged fasting reduces IGF-1/PKA to promote hematopoietic-stem-cell-based regeneration and reverse immunosuppression. Cell Stem Cell, 2014, 14(6), 810-823. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2014.04.014 PMID: 24905167
  22. Brandhorst, S.; Choi, I.Y.; Wei, M.; Cheng, C.W.; Sedrakyan, S.; Navarrete, G.; Dubeau, L.; Yap, L.P.; Park, R.; Vinciguerra, M.; Di Biase, S.; Mirzaei, H.; Mirisola, M.G.; Childress, P.; Ji, L.; Groshen, S.; Penna, F.; Odetti, P.; Perin, L.; Conti, P.S.; Ikeno, Y.; Kennedy, B.K.; Cohen, P.; Morgan, T.E.; Dorff, T.B.; Longo, V.D. A periodic diet that mimics fasting promotes multi-system regeneration, enhanced cognitive performance, and healthspan. Cell Metab., 2015, 22(1), 86-99. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.012 PMID: 26094889
  23. Bak, A.M.; Vendelbo, M.H.; Christensen, B.; Viggers, R.; Bibby, B.M.; Rungby, J.; Jørgensen, J.O.L.; Viggers, R.; Møller, N.; Jessen, N. Prolonged fasting-induced metabolic signatures in human skeletal muscle of lean and obese men. PLoS ONE, 2018, 13(9), e0200817.
  24. Jørgensen, S.W.; Hjort, L.; Gillberg, L.; Justesen, L.; Madsbad, S.; Brøns, C.; Vaag, A.A. Impact of prolonged fasting on insulin secretion, insulin action, and hepatic versus whole body insulin secretion disposition indices in healthy young males. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 2021, 320(2), E281-E290. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00433.2020 PMID: 33284087
  25. Zajac, I.; Herreen, D.; Hunkin, H.; James-Martin, G.; Doyen, M.; Kakoschke, N.; Brindal, E. Modified fasting compared to true fasting improves blood glucose levels and subjective experiences of hunger, food cravings and mental fatigue, but not cognitive function: Results of an acute randomised cross-over trial. Nutrients, 2020, 13(1), 65. doi: 10.3390/nu13010065 PMID: 33379191
  26. Patterson, R.E.; Laughlin, G.A.; LaCroix, A.Z.; Hartman, S.J.; Natarajan, L.; Senger, C.M.; Martínez, M.E.; Villaseñor, A.; Sears, D.D.; Marinac, C.R.; Gallo, L.C. Intermittent fasting and human metabolic health. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet., 2015, 115(8), 1203-1212. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.02.018 PMID: 25857868
  27. Varady, K.A.; Bhutani, S.; Church, E.C.; Klempel, M.C. Short-term modified alternate-day fasting: A novel dietary strategy for weight loss and cardioprotection in obese adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2009, 90(5), 1138-1143. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28380 PMID: 19793855
  28. Varady, K.A.; Roohk, D.J.; Hellerstein, M.K. Dose effects of modified alternate-day fasting regimens on in vivo cell proliferation and plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 in mice. J. Appl. Physiol., 2007, 103(2), 547-551. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00209.2007 PMID: 17495119
  29. Varady, K.A.; Hudak, C.S.; Hellerstein, M.K. Modified alternate-day fasting and cardioprotection: Relation to adipose tissue dynamics and dietary fat intake. Metab. Clin. Exp., 2009, 58(6), P803-811.
  30. Trouwborst, I.; Bowser, S.M.; Goossens, G.H.; Blaak, E.E. Ectopic fat accumulation in distinct insulin resistant phenotypes; targets for personalized nutritional interventions. Front. Nutr., 2018, 5, 77. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00077 PMID: 30234122
  31. Borén, J.; Taskinen, M.R.; Olofsson, S.O.; Levin, M. Ectopic lipid storage and insulin resistance: A harmful relationship. J. Intern. Med., 2013, 274(1), 25-40. doi: 10.1111/joim.12071 PMID: 23551521
  32. Bolze, F.; Bast, A.; Mocek, S.; Morath, V.; Yuan, D.; Rink, N.; Schlapschy, M.; Zimmermann, A.; Heikenwalder, M.; Skerra, A.; Klingenspor, M. Treatment of diet-induced lipodystrophic C57BL/6J mice with long-acting PASylated leptin normalises insulin sensitivity and hepatic steatosis by promoting lipid utilisation. Diabetologia, 2016, 59(9), 2005-2012. doi: 10.1007/s00125-016-4004-6 PMID: 27272237
  33. Petersen, M.C.; Shulman, G.I. Mechanisms of insulin action and insulin resistance. Physiol. Rev., 2018, 98(4), 2133-2223. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00063.2017 PMID: 30067154
  34. Minokoshi, Y.; Toda, C.; Okamoto, S. Regulatory role of leptin in glucose and lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle. Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab., 2012, 16(9)(Suppl. 3), 562. doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.105573 PMID: 23565491
  35. Abdella, N.A.; Mojiminiyi, O.A.; Moussa, M.A.; Zaki, M.; Al Mohammedi, H.; Al Ozairi, E.S.S.; Al Jebely, S. Plasma leptin concentration in patients with Type 2 diabetes: Relationship to cardiovascular disease risk factors and insulin resistance. Diabetic Medicine, 2005, 22(3), 278-285.
  36. Asakawa, H.; Tokunaga, K.; Kawakami, F. Relationship of leptin level with metabolic disorders and hypertension in Japanese type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. J. Diabetes Complications, 2001, 15(2), 57-62. doi: 10.1016/S1056-8727(00)00145-8 PMID: 11274900
  37. Sattar, N.; Wannamethee, G.; Sarwar, N.; Chernova, J.; Lawlor, D.A.; Kelly, A.; Wallace, A.M.; Danesh, J.; Whincup, P.H. Leptin and coronary heart disease: Prospective study and systematic review. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2009, 53(2), 167-175. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.09.035 PMID: 19130985
  38. Headland, M.L.; Clifton, P.M.; Keogh, J.B. Effect of intermittent compared to continuous energy restriction on weight loss and weight maintenance after 12 months in healthy overweight or obese adults. Int. J. Obes., 2019, 43(10), 2028-2036. doi: 10.1038/s41366-018-0247-2 PMID: 30470804
  39. Hoddy, K.K.; Kroeger, C.M.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Barnosky, A.; Bhutani, S.; Varady, K.A. Meal timing during alternate day fasting: Impact on body weight and cardiovascular disease risk in obese adults. Obesity, 2014, 22(12), 2524-2531. doi: 10.1002/oby.20909 PMID: 25251676
  40. Hutchison, A.T.; Liu, B.; Wood, R.E.; Vincent, A.D.; Thompson, C.H.; O’Callaghan, N.J.; Wittert, G.A.; Heilbronn, L.K. Effects of intermittent versus continuous energy intakes on insulin sensitivity and metabolic risk in women with overweight. Obesity, 2019, 27(1), 50-58. doi: 10.1002/oby.22345 PMID: 30569640
  41. Bhutani, S.; Klempel, M.C.; Kroeger, C.M.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Varady, K.A. Alternate day fasting and endurance exercise combine to reduce body weight and favorably alter plasma lipids in obese humans. Obesity, 2013, 21(7), 1370-1379. doi: 10.1002/oby.20353 PMID: 23408502
  42. Catenacci, V.A.; Pan, Z.; Ostendorf, D.; Brannon, S.; Gozansky, W.S.; Mattson, M.P.; Martin, B.; MacLean, P.S.; Melanson, E.L.; Troy Donahoo, W. A randomized pilot study comparing zero-calorie alternate-day fasting to daily caloric restriction in adults with obesity. Obesity, 2016, 24(9), 1874-1883. doi: 10.1002/oby.21581 PMID: 27569118
  43. Cho, A.R.; Moon, J.Y.; Kim, S.; An, K.Y.; Oh, M.; Jeon, J.Y.; Jung, D.H.; Choi, M.H.; Lee, J.W. Effects of alternate day fasting and exercise on cholesterol metabolism in overweight or obese adults: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Metabolism, 2019, 93, 52-60. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2019.01.002 PMID: 30615947
  44. Coutinho, S.R.; Halset, E.H.; Gåsbakk, S.; Rehfeld, J.F.; Kulseng, B.; Truby, H.; Martins, C. Compensatory mechanisms activated with intermittent energy restriction: A randomized control trial. Clin. Nutr., 2018, 37(3), 815-823. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.04.002 PMID: 28446382
  45. Trepanowski, J.F.; Kroeger, C.M.; Barnosky, A.; Klempel, M.C.; Bhutani, S.; Hoddy, K.K.; Gabel, K.; Freels, S.; Rigdon, J.; Rood, J.; Ravussin, E.; Varady, K.A. Effect of alternate-day fasting on weight loss, weight maintenance, and cardioprotection among metabolically healthy obese adults. JAMA Intern. Med., 2017, 177(7), 930-938. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0936 PMID: 28459931
  46. Varady, K.A.; Hoddy, K.K.; Kroeger, C.M.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Klempel, M.C.; Barnosky, A.; Bhutani, S. Determinants of weight loss success with alternate day fasting. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract., 2016, 10(4), 476-480. doi: 10.1016/j.orcp.2015.08.020 PMID: 26385599
  47. Mi, M.; Ljb, M.; Wm, A.R.; Dn, A. Ramadan diurnal intermittent fasting is associated with attenuated FTO gene expression in subjects with overweight and obesity: A prospective cohort study. Front. Nutr., 2022, 8, 741811.
  48. Albosta, M.; Bakke, J. Intermittent fasting: Is there a role in the treatment of diabetes? A review of the literature and guide for primary care physicians. Clin. Diabetes Endocrinol., 2021, 7(1), 3. doi: 10.1186/s40842-020-00116-1 PMID: 33531076
  49. Arnason, T.G.; Bowen, M.W.; Mansell, K.D. Effects of intermittent fasting on health markers in those with type 2 diabetes: A pilot study. World J. Diabetes, 2017, 8(4), 154-164. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v8.i4.154 PMID: 28465792
  50. Kahleova, H.; Belinova, L.; Malinska, H.; Oliyarnyk, O.; Trnovska, J.; Skop, V.; Kazdova, L.; Dezortova, M.; Hajek, M.; Tura, A.; Hill, M.; Pelikanova, T. Eating two larger meals a day (breakfast and lunch) is more effective than six smaller meals in a reduced-energy regimen for patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomised crossover study. Diabetologia, 2014, 57(8), 1552-1560. doi: 10.1007/s00125-014-3253-5 PMID: 24838678
  51. Teong, X.T.; Liu, K.; Vincent, A.D.; Bensalem, J.; Liu, B.; Hattersley, K.J.; Zhao, L.; Feinle-Bisset, C.; Sargeant, T.J.; Wittert, G.A.; Hutchison, A.T.; Heilbronn, L.K. Intermittent fasting plus early time-restricted eating versus calorie restriction and standard care in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. Nat. Med., 2023, 29(4), 963-972. doi: 10.1038/s41591-023-02287-7 PMID: 37024596
  52. Carter, S.; Clifton, P.M.; Keogh, J.B. Effect of intermittent compared with continuous energy restricted diet on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA Netw. Open, 2018, 1(3), e180756. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0756 PMID: 30646030
  53. Obermayer, A.; Tripolt, N.J.; Pferschy, P.N.; Kojzar, H.; Aziz, F.; Müller, A.; Schauer, M.; Oulhaj, A.; Aberer, F.; Sourij, C.; Habisch, H.; Madl, T.; Pieber, T.; Obermayer-Pietsch, B.; Stadlbauer, V.; Sourij, H. Efficacy and safety of intermittent fasting in people with insulin-treated type 2 diabetes (INTERFAST-2)-a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care, 2023, 46(2), 463-468. doi: 10.2337/dc22-1622 PMID: 36508320
  54. Corley, B.T.; Carroll, R.W.; Hall, R.M.; Weatherall, M.; Parry-Strong, A.; Krebs, J.D. Intermittent fasting in Type 2 diabetes mellitus and the risk of hypoglycaemia: A randomized controlled trial. Diabet. Med., 2018, 35(5), 588-594. doi: 10.1111/dme.13595 PMID: 29405359
  55. Gabel, K.; Kroeger, C.M.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Hoddy, K.K.; Cienfuegos, S.; Kalam, F.; Varady, K.A. Differential effects of alternate day fasting versus daily calorie restriction on insulin resistance. Obesity, 2019, 27(9), 1443-1450. doi: 10.1002/oby.22564 PMID: 31328895
  56. Silver, DT; Pekari, TB A review of intermittent fasting as a treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Med. J. (Ft Sam Houst Tex)., 2023, (Per 23-4/5/6), 65-71.
  57. Cardiovascular diseases. Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topics/cardiovascular-diseases
  58. Tanuseputro, P.; Manuel, D.G.; Leung, M.; Nguyen, K.; Johansen, H. Canadian cardiovascular outcomes research team. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Canada. Can. J. Cardiol., 2003, 19(11), 1249-59.
  59. Onat, A. Risk factors and cardiovascular disease in Turkey. Atherosclerosis, 2001, 156(1), 1-10. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00500-7 PMID: 11368991
  60. Casas, R.; Castro-Barquero, S.; Estruch, R.; Sacanella, E. Nutrition and cardiovascular health. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2018, 19(12), 3988.
  61. Yu, E.; Malik, V.S.; Hu, F.B. Cardiovascular disease prevention by diet modification. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2018, 72(8), 914-926. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.02.085 PMID: 30115231
  62. Naz, H.; Haider, R.; Rashid, H.; Ul Haq, Z.; Malik, J.; Zaidi, S.M.J.; Ishaq, U.; Trevisan, R. Islamic fasting: Cardiovascular disease perspective. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther., 2022, 20(10), 795-805. doi: 10.1080/14779072.2022.2138344 PMID: 36260858
  63. Ben Ahmed, H.; Allouche, E.; Bouzid, K.; Zrelli, S.; Hmaidi, W.; Molahedh, Y.; Ouechtati, W.; Bezdah, L. Impact of Ramadan fasting on lipid profile and cardiovascular risk factors in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Ann. Cardiol. Angeiol., 2022, 71(1), 36-40. doi: 10.1016/j.ancard.2020.11.001 PMID: 33642044
  64. Nematy, M.; Alinezhad-Namaghi, M.; Rashed, M.M.; Mozhdehifard, M.; Sajjadi, S.S.; Akhlaghi, S.; Sabery, M.; Mohajeri, S.A.R.; Shalaey, N.; Moohebati, M.; Norouzy, A. Effects of Ramadan fasting on cardiovascular risk factors: A prospective observational study. Nutr. J., 2012, 11(1), 69. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-11-69 PMID: 22963582
  65. Mager, D.E.; Wan, R.; Brown, M.; Cheng, A.; Wareski, P.; Abernethy, D.R.; Mattson, M.P. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter spectral measures of heart rate and blood pressure variability in rats. FASEB J., 2006, 20(6), 631-637. doi: 10.1096/fj.05-5263com PMID: 16581971
  66. Wilhelmi de Toledo, F.; Grundler, F.; Bergouignan, A.; Drinda, S.; Michalsen, A. Safety, health improvement and well-being during a 4 to 21-day fasting period in an observational study including 1422 subjects. PLoS One, 2019, 14(1), e0209353. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209353 PMID: 30601864
  67. Eldeeb, A.; Mahmoud, M.; Ibrahim, A.; Yousef, E.; Sabry, A. Effect of Ramadan fasting on arterial stiffness parameters among Egyptian hypertensive patients with and without chronic kidney disease. Saudi J. Kidney Dis. Transpl., 2020, 31(3), 582-588. doi: 10.4103/1319-2442.289444 PMID: 32655044
  68. Hammoud, S.; Saad, I.; Karam, R.; Abou Jaoude, F.; van den Bemt, B.J.F.; Kurdi, M. Impact of Ramadan intermittent fasting on the heart rate variability and cardiovascular parameters of patients with controlled hypertension. J. Nutr. Metab., 2021, 2021, 1-10. doi: 10.1155/2021/6610455 PMID: 33859841
  69. Sutton, E.F.; Beyl, R.; Early, K.S.; Cefalu, W.T.; Ravussin, E.; Peterson, C.M. Early time-restricted feeding improves insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and oxidative stress even without weight loss in men with prediabetes. Cell Metab., 2018, 27(6), 1212-1221.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.04.010 PMID: 29754952
  70. Herrington, W.; Lacey, B.; Sherliker, P.; Armitage, J.; Lewington, S. Epidemiology of atherosclerosis and the potential to reduce the global burden of atherothrombotic disease. Circ. Res., 2016, 118(4), 535-546. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.307611 PMID: 26892956
  71. Lee, Y.T.; Lin, H.Y.; Chan, Y.W.F.; Li, K.H.C.; To, O.T.L.; Yan, B.P.; Liu, T.; Li, G.; Wong, W.T.; Keung, W.; Tse, G. Mouse models of atherosclerosis: A historical perspective and recent advances. Lipids Health Dis., 2017, 16(1), 12. doi: 10.1186/s12944-016-0402-5 PMID: 28095860
  72. Aksungar, F.B.; Topkaya, A.E.; Akyildiz, M. Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein and biochemical parameters during prolonged intermittent fasting. Ann. Nutr. Metab., 2007, 51(1), 88-95. doi: 10.1159/000100954 PMID: 17374948
  73. Chandrasekar, B.; Nelson, J.F.; Colston, J.T.; Freeman, G.L. Calorie restriction attenuates inflammatory responses to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 2001, 280(5), H2094-H2102. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.2001.280.5.H2094 PMID: 11299211
  74. Bhutani, S.; Klempel, M.C.; Berger, R.A.; Varady, K.A. Improvements in coronary heart disease risk indicators by alternate-day fasting involve adipose tissue modulations. Obesity, 2010, 18(11), 2152-2159. doi: 10.1038/oby.2010.54 PMID: 20300080
  75. Khalfallah, M.; Elnagar, B.; Soliman, S.S.; Eissa, A.; Allaithy, A. The value of intermittent fasting and low carbohydrate diet in prediabetic patients for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Arq. Bras. Cardiol., 2023, 120(4), e20220606. doi: 10.36660/abc.20220606 PMID: 37042857
  76. Bartholomew, C.L.; Muhlestein, J.B.; Anderson, J.L.; May, H.T.; Knowlton, K.U.; Bair, T.L.; Le, V.T.; Bailey, B.W.; Horne, B.D. Association of periodic fasting lifestyles with survival and incident major adverse cardiovascular events in patients undergoing cardiac catheterization. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol., 2022, 28(16), 1774-1781. doi: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwaa050 PMID: 33624026
  77. Moro, T.; Tinsley, G.; Pacelli, F.Q.; Marcolin, G.; Bianco, A.; Paoli, A. Twelve months of time-restricted eating and resistance training improves inflammatory markers and cardiometabolic risk factors. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 2021, 53(12), 2577-2585. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002738 PMID: 34649266
  78. Klempel, M.C.; Kroeger, C.M.; Bhutani, S.; Trepanowski, J.F.; Varady, K.A. Intermittent fasting combined with calorie restriction is effective for weight loss and cardio-protection in obese women. Nutr. J., 2012, 11(1), 98. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-11-98 PMID: 23171320
  79. Becker, A.; Gaballa, D.; Roslin, M.; Gianos, E.; Kane, J. Novel nutritional and dietary approaches to weight loss for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: ketogenic diet, intermittent fasting, and bariatric surgery. Curr. Cardiol. Rep., 2021, 23(7), 85. doi: 10.1007/s11886-021-01515-1 PMID: 34081228
  80. Schroder, J.D.; Falqueto, H.; Mânica, A.; Zanini, D.; de Oliveira, T.; de Sá, C.A.; Cardoso, A.M.; Manfredi, L.H. Effects of time-restricted feeding in weight loss, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk in obese women. J. Transl. Med., 2021, 19(1), 3. doi: 10.1186/s12967-020-02687-0 PMID: 33407612
  81. Camelo, L.; Marinho, T.S.; Águila, M.B.; Souza-Mello, V.; Barbosa-da-Silva, S. Intermittent fasting exerts beneficial metabolic effects on blood pressure and cardiac structure by modulating local renin-angiotensin system in the heart of mice fed high-fat or high-fructose diets. Nutr. Res., 2019, 63, 51-62. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2018.12.005 PMID: 30824397
  82. Lakatta, E.G. Age-associated cardiovascular changes in health: impact on cardiovascular disease in older persons. Heart Fail. Rev., 2002, 7(1), 29-49. doi: 10.1023/A:1013797722156 PMID: 11790921
  83. Badreh, F.; Joukar, S.; Badavi, M.; Rashno, M. Restoration of the renin–angiotensin system balance is a part of the effect of fasting on cardiovascular rejuvenation: Role of age and fasting models. Rejuvenation Res., 2020, 23(4), 302-312. doi: 10.1089/rej.2019.2254 PMID: 31571520
  84. Demirci, E.; Çalapkorur, B.; Celik, O.; Koçer, D.; Demirelli, S.; Şimsek, Z. Improvement in blood pressure after intermittent fasting in hipertension: Could renin-angiotensin system and autonomic nervous system have a role? Arq. Bras. Cardiol., 2023, 120(5), e20220756. doi: 10.36660/abc.20220756 PMID: 37098959
  85. He, Z.; Xu, H.; Li, C.; Yang, H.; Mao, Y. Intermittent fasting and immunomodulatory effects: A systematic review. Front. Nutr., 2023, 10, 1048230. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1048230 PMID: 36925956
  86. Bhatti, S.I.; Mindikoglu, A.L. The impact of dawn to sunset fasting on immune system and its clinical significance in COVID-19 pandemic. Metabolism Open, 2022, 13, 100162. doi: 10.1016/j.metop.2021.100162 PMID: 34977523
  87. Johnson, J.B.; Summer, W.; Cutler, R.G.; Martin, B.; Hyun, D.H.; Dixit, V.D.; Pearson, M.; Nassar, M.; Tellejohan, R.; Maudsley, S.; Carlson, O.; John, S.; Laub, D.R.; Mattson, M.P. Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2007, 42(5), 665-674. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.12.005 PMID: 17291990
  88. Faris, A.I.E.; Kacimi, S.; Al-Kurd, R.A.; Fararjeh, M.A.; Bustanji, Y.K.; Mohammad, M.K.; Salem, M.L. Intermittent fasting during Ramadan attenuates proinflammatory cytokines and immune cells in healthy subjects. Nutr. Res., 2012, 32(12), 947-955. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2012.06.021 PMID: 23244540
  89. Gasmi, M.; Sellami, M.; Denham, J.; Padulo, J.; Kuvacic, G.; Selmi, W.; Khalifa, R. Time-restricted feeding influences immune responses without compromising muscle performance in older men. Nutrition, 2018, 51-52, 29-37. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2017.12.014 PMID: 29571007
  90. Mindikoglu, A.L.; Abdulsada, M.M.; Jain, A.; Choi, J.M.; Jalal, P.K.; Devaraj, S.; Mezzari, M.P.; Petrosino, J.F.; Opekun, A.R.; Jung, S.Y. Intermittent fasting from dawn to sunset for 30 consecutive days is associated with anticancer proteomic signature and upregulates key regulatory proteins of glucose and lipid metabolism, circadian clock, DNA repair, cytoskeleton remodeling, immune system and cognitive function in healthy subjects. J. Proteomics, 2020, 217, 103645. doi: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103645 PMID: 31927066
  91. Madkour, M.I.; El-Serafi, A.T.; Jahrami, H.A.; Sherif, N.M.; Hassan, R.E.; Awadallah, S.; Al-Islam E Faris, M. Ramadan diurnal intermittent fasting modulates SOD2, TFAM, Nrf2, and sirtuins (SIRT1, SIRT3) gene expressions in subjects with overweight and obesity. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 2019, 155, 107801.
  92. Faris, M.A.I.E.; Jahrami, H.A.; Obaideen, A.A.; Madkour, M.I. Impact of diurnal intermittent fasting during Ramadan on inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in healthy people: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Nutr. Intermed. Metab., 2019, 15, 18-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jnim.2018.11.005
  93. Song, S.; Bai, M.; Ling, Z.; Lin, Y.; Wang, S.; Chen, Y. Intermittent administration of a fasting-mimicking diet reduces intestinal inflammation and promotes repair to ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease in mice. J. Nutr. Biochem., 2021, 96, 108785. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108785 PMID: 34087411
  94. Nobari, H.; Saedmocheshi, S.; Murawska-Ciałowicz, E.; Clemente, F.M.; Suzuki, K.; Silva, A.F. Exploring the effects of energy constraints on performance, body composition, endocrinological/hematological biomarkers, and immune system among athletes: An overview of the fasting state. Nutrients, 2022, 14(15), 3197. doi: 10.3390/nu14153197 PMID: 35956373
  95. Janssen, H.; Kahles, F.; Liu, D.; Downey, J.; Koekkoek, L.L.; Roudko, V.; D’Souza, D.; McAlpine, C.S.; Halle, L.; Poller, W.C.; Chan, C.T.; He, S.; Mindur, J.E.; Kiss, M.G.; Singh, S.; Anzai, A.; Iwamoto, Y.; Kohler, R.H.; Chetal, K.; Sadreyev, R.I.; Weissleder, R.; Kim-Schulze, S.; Merad, M.; Nahrendorf, M.; Swirski, F.K. Monocytes re-enter the bone marrow during fasting and alter the host response to infection. Immunity, 2023, 56(4), 783-796.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2023.01.024 PMID: 36827982
  96. Jordan, S.; Tung, N.; Casanova-Acebes, M.; Chang, C.; Cantoni, C.; Zhang, D.; Wirtz, T.H.; Naik, S.; Rose, S.A.; Brocker, C.N.; Gainullina, A.; Hornburg, D.; Horng, S.; Maier, B.B.; Cravedi, P.; LeRoith, D.; Gonzalez, F.J.; Meissner, F.; Ochando, J.; Rahman, A.; Chipuk, J.E.; Artyomov, M.N.; Frenette, P.S.; Piccio, L.; Berres, M.L.; Gallagher, E.J.; Merad, M. Dietary intake regulates the circulating inflammatory monocyte pool. Cell, 2019, 178(5), 1102-1114.e17. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.050 PMID: 31442403
  97. Nagai, M.; Noguchi, R.; Takahashi, D.; Morikawa, T.; Koshida, K.; Komiyama, S.; Ishihara, N.; Yamada, T.; Kawamura, Y.; Muroi, K.; Hattori, K. Fasting-refeeding impacts immune cell dynamics and mucosal immune responses. Cell., 2019, 178(5), 1072-1087.e14.
  98. Cignarella, F.; Cantoni, C.; Ghezzi, L.; Salter, A.; Dorsett, Y.; Chen, L.; Phillips, D.; Weinstock, G.M.; Fontana, L.; Cross, A.H.; Zhou, Y.; Piccio, L. Intermittent fasting confers protection in cns autoimmunity by altering the gut microbiota. Cell Metab., 2018, 27(6), 1222-1235.e6. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.05.006 PMID: 29874567
  99. Furusawa, Y.; Obata, Y.; Hase, K. Commensal microbiota regulates T cell fate decision in the gut. Semin. Immunopathol., 2015, 37(1), 17-25. doi: 10.1007/s00281-014-0455-3 PMID: 25315350
  100. Fitzgerald, K.C.; Bhargava, P.; Smith, M.D.; Vizthum, D.; Henry-Barron, B.; Kornberg, M.D.; Cassard, S.D.; Kapogiannis, D.; Sullivan, P.; Baer, D.J.; Calabresi, P.A.; Mowry, E.M. Intermittent calorie restriction alters T cell subsets and metabolic markers in people with multiple sclerosis. EBioMedicine, 2022, 82, 104124. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104124 PMID: 35816900
  101. Hong, S.M.; Lee, J.; Jang, S.G.; Song, Y.; Kim, M.; Lee, J.; Cho, M.L.; Kwok, S.K.; Park, S.H. Intermittent fasting aggravates lupus nephritis through increasing survival and autophagy of antibody secreting cells in MRL/lpr mice. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2020, 21(22), 8477. doi: 10.3390/ijms21228477 PMID: 33187196
  102. Sung, H.; Ferlay, J.; Siegel, R.L.; Laversanne, M.; Soerjomataram, I.; Jemal, A.; Bray, F. Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2021, 71(3), 209-249. doi: 10.3322/caac.21660 PMID: 33538338
  103. Miranda-Filho, A.; Bray, F.; Charvat, H.; Rajaraman, S.; Soerjomataram, I. The world cancer patient population (WCPP): An updated standard for international comparisons of population-based survival. Cancer Epidemiol., 2020, 69, 101802. doi: 10.1016/j.canep.2020.101802 PMID: 32942139
  104. Safdie, F.M.; Dorff, T.; Quinn, D.; Fontana, L.; Wei, M.; Lee, C.; Cohen, P.; Longo, V.D. Fasting and cancer treatment in humans: A case series report. Aging, 2009, 1(12), 988-1007. doi: 10.18632/aging.100114 PMID: 20157582
  105. Bauersfeld, S.P.; Kessler, C.S.; Wischnewsky, M.; Jaensch, A.; Steckhan, N.; Stange, R.; Kunz, B.; Brückner, B.; Sehouli, J.; Michalsen, A. The effects of short-term fasting on quality of life and tolerance to chemotherapy in patients with breast and ovarian cancer: A randomized cross-over pilot study. BMC Cancer, 2018, 18(1), 476. doi: 10.1186/s12885-018-4353-2 PMID: 29699509
  106. de Groot, S.; Vreeswijk, M.P.G.; Welters, M.J.P.; Gravesteijn, G.; Boei, J.J.W.A.; Jochems, A.; Houtsma, D.; Putter, H.; van der Hoeven, J.J.M.; Nortier, J.W.R.; Pijl, H.; Kroep, J.R. The effects of short-term fasting on tolerance to (neo) adjuvant chemotherapy in HER2-negative breast cancer patients: A randomized pilot study. BMC Cancer, 2015, 15(1), 652. doi: 10.1186/s12885-015-1663-5 PMID: 26438237
  107. Dorff, T.B.; Groshen, S.; Garcia, A.; Shah, M.; Tsao-Wei, D.; Pham, H.; Cheng, C.W.; Brandhorst, S.; Cohen, P.; Wei, M.; Longo, V.; Quinn, D.I. Safety and feasibility of fasting in combination with platinum-based chemotherapy. BMC Cancer, 2016, 16(1), 360. doi: 10.1186/s12885-016-2370-6 PMID: 27282289
  108. Vernieri, C.; Fucà, G.; Ligorio, F.; Huber, V.; Vingiani, A.; Iannelli, F.; Raimondi, A.; Rinchai, D.; Frigè, G.; Belfiore, A.; Lalli, L.; Chiodoni, C.; Cancila, V.; Zanardi, F.; Ajazi, A.; Cortellino, S.; Vallacchi, V.; Squarcina, P.; Cova, A.; Pesce, S.; Frati, P.; Mall, R.; Corsetto, P.A.; Rizzo, A.M.; Ferraris, C.; Folli, S.; Garassino, M.C.; Capri, G.; Bianchi, G.; Colombo, M.P.; Minucci, S.; Foiani, M.; Longo, V.D.; Apolone, G.; Torri, V.; Pruneri, G.; Bedognetti, D.; Rivoltini, L.; de Braud, F. Fasting-mimicking diet is safe and reshapes metabolism and antitumor immunity in patients with cancer. Cancer Discov., 2022, 12(1), 90-107. doi: 10.1158/2159-8290.CD-21-0030 PMID: 34789537
  109. Alshammari, K.; Alhaidal, H.A.; Alharbi, R.; Alrubaiaan, A.; Abdel-Razaq, W.; Alyousif, G.; Alkaiyat, M. The impact of fasting the holy month of ramadan on colorectal cancer patients and two tumor biomarkers: A tertiary-care hospital experience. Cureus, 2023, 15(1), e33920. doi: 10.7759/cureus.33920 PMID: 36819321
  110. Raffaghello, L.; Lee, C.; Safdie, F.M.; Wei, M.; Madia, F.; Bianchi, G.; Longo, V.D. Starvation-dependent differential stress resistance protects normal but not cancer cells against high-dose chemotherapy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, 105(24), 8215-8220. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708100105 PMID: 18378900
  111. Di Biase, S.; Shim, H.S.; Kim, K.H.; Vinciguerra, M.; Rappa, F.; Wei, M.; Brandhorst, S.; Cappello, F.; Mirzaei, H.; Lee, C.; Longo, V.D. Fasting regulates EGR1 and protects from glucose- and dexamethasone-dependent sensitization to chemotherapy. PLoS Biol., 2017, 15(3), e2001951. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2001951 PMID: 28358805
  112. Lin, S.J.; Kaeberlein, M.; Andalis, A.A.; Sturtz, L.A.; Defossez, P.A.; Culotta, V.C.; Fink, G.R.; Guarente, L. Calorie restriction extends Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan by increasing respiration. Nature, 2002, 418(6895), 344-348. doi: 10.1038/nature00829 PMID: 12124627
  113. de Groot, S.; Pijl, H.; van der Hoeven, J.J.M.; Kroep, J.R. Effects of short-term fasting on cancer treatment. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res., 2019, 38(1), 209. doi: 10.1186/s13046-019-1189-9 PMID: 31113478
  114. Lee, C; Raffaghello, L; Brandhorst, S; Safdie, FM; Bianchi, G; Martin-Montalvo, A Fasting cycles retard growth of tumors and sensitize a range of cancer cell types to chemotherapy. Sci. Transl. Med., 2012, 4(124), 124ra27-124ra27. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003293
  115. Lee, C.; Fernando, M.; Raffaghello, L.; Wei, M.; Madia, F.; Parrella, E.; Hwang, D.; Cohen, P.; Bianchi, G.; Longo1, V.D. Reduced IGF-I differentially protects normal and cancer cells and improves chemotherapeutic index in mice. Cancer Res., 2010, 70(4), 1564-1572.
  116. Dhanyamraju, P.K.; Schell, T.D.; Amin, S.; Robertson, G.P. Drug-tolerant persister cells in cancer therapy resistance. Cancer Res., 2022, 82(14), 2503-2514. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-21-3844 PMID: 35584245
  117. Liu, X.; Peng, S.; Tang, G.; Xu, G.; Xie, Y.; Shen, D.; Zhu, M.; Huang, Y.; Wang, X.; Yu, H.; Huang, M.; Luo, Y. Fasting-mimicking diet synergizes with ferroptosis against quiescent, chemotherapy-resistant cells. EBioMedicine, 2023, 90, 104496. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104496 PMID: 36863257
  118. Erlangga, Z.; Ghashang, S.K.; Hamdan, I.; Melk, A.; Gutenbrunner, C.; Nugraha, B. The effect of prolonged intermittent fasting on autophagy, inflammasome and senescence genes expressions: An exploratory study in healthy young males. Human Nutr. Metab., 2023, 32, 200189. doi: 10.1016/j.hnm.2023.200189
  119. Galluzzi, L.; Buqué, A.; Kepp, O.; Zitvogel, L.; Kroemer, G. Immunological effects of conventional chemotherapy and targeted anticancer agents. Cancer Cell, 2015, 28(6), 690-714. doi: 10.1016/j.ccell.2015.10.012 PMID: 26678337
  120. Gardai, S.J.; McPhillips, K.A.; Frasch, S.C.; Janssen, W.J.; Starefeldt, A.; Murphy-Ullrich, J.E.; Bratton, D.L.; Oldenborg, P.A.; Michalak, M.; Henson, P.M. Cell-surface calreticulin initiates clearance of viable or apoptotic cells through trans-activation of LRP on the phagocyte. Cell, 2005, 123(2), 321-334. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2005.08.032 PMID: 16239148
  121. Garg, A.D.; Galluzzi, L.; Apetoh, L.; Baert, T.; Raymond, B.; Bravo-San, J.M.; Breckpot, K.; Brough, D.; Chaurio, R.; Cirone, M.; Coosemans, A.; Coulie, P.G. Molecular and translational classifications of DAMPs in immunogenic cell death. Front. Immunol., 2015, 6, 588.
  122. Thorburn, J.; Horita, H.; Redzic, J.; Hansen, K.; Frankel, A.E.; Thorburn, A. Autophagy regulates selective HMGB1 release in tumor cells that are destined to die. Cell Death Differ., 2009, 16, 175-183.
  123. Michaud, M.; Martins, I.; Sukkurwala, A.Q.; Adjemian, S.; Ma, Y.; Pellegatti, P.; Shen, S.; Kepp, O.; Scoazec, M.; Mignot, G.; Rello-Varona, S.; Tailler, M.; Menger, L.; Vacchelli, E.; Galluzzi, L.; Ghiringhelli, F.; di Virgilio, F.; Zitvogel, L.; Kroemer, G. Autophagy-dependent anticancer immune responses induced by chemotherapeutic agents in mice. Science, 2011, 334(6062), 1573-1577. doi: 10.1126/science.1208347 PMID: 22174255
  124. Pietrocola, F.; Pol, J.; Vacchelli, E.; Rao, S.; Enot, D.P.; Baracco, E.E.; Levesque, S.; Castoldi, F.; Jacquelot, N.; Yamazaki, T.; Senovilla, L.; Marino, G.; Aranda, F.; Durand, S.; Sica, V.; Chery, A.; Lachkar, S.; Sigl, V.; Bloy, N.; Buque, A.; Falzoni, S.; Ryffel, B.; Apetoh, L.; Di Virgilio, F.; Madeo, F.; Maiuri, M.C.; Zitvogel, L.; Levine, B.; Penninger, J.M.; Kroemer, G. Caloric restriction mimetics enhance anticancer immunosurveillance. Cancer Cell, 2016, 30(1), 147-160. doi: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.05.016 PMID: 27411589
  125. Ponpuak, M.; Mandell, M.A.; Kimura, T.; Chauhan, S.; Cleyrat, C.; Deretic, V. Secretory autophagy. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 2015, 35, 106-116. doi: 10.1016/j.ceb.2015.04.016 PMID: 25988755
  126. Norbury, C.C.; Hewlett, L.J.; Prescott, A.R.; Shastri, N.; Watts, C. Class I MHC presentation of exogenous soluble antigen via macropinocytosis in bone marrow macrophages. Immunity, 1995, 3(6), 783-791. doi: 10.1016/1074-7613(95)90067-5 PMID: 8777723
  127. Paludan, C.; Schmid, D.; Landthaler, M.; Vockerodt, M.; Kube, D.; Tuschl, T.; Münz, C. Endogenous MHC class II processing of a viral nuclear antigen after autophagy. Science, 2005, 307(5709), 593-596. doi: 10.1126/science.1104904 PMID: 15591165
  128. Schmid, D.; Pypaert, M.; Münz, C. Antigen-loading compartments for major histocompatibility complex class II molecules continuously receive input from autophagosomes. Immunity, 2007, 26(1), 79-92. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.10.018 PMID: 17182262
  129. Chemali, M.; Radtke, K.; Desjardins, M.; English, L. Alternative pathways for MHC class I presentation: A new function for autophagy. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2011, 68(9), 1533-1541. doi: 10.1007/s00018-011-0660-3 PMID: 21390546
  130. Dengjel, J.; Schoor, O.; Fischer, R.; Reich, M.; Kraus, M.; Müller, M.; Kreymborg, K.; Altenberend, F.; Brandenburg, J.; Kalbacher, H.; Brock, R.; Driessen, C.; Rammensee, H.G.; Stevanovic, S. Autophagy promotes MHC class II presentation of peptides from intracellular source proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2005, 102(22), 7922-7927. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0501190102 PMID: 15894616
  131. Trollmo, C.; Verdrengh, M.; Tarkowski, A. Fasting enhances mucosal antigen specific B cell responses in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis., 1997, 56(2), 130-4.
  132. Yun, C.; Lee, S. The roles of autophagy in cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2018, 19(11), 3466. doi: 10.3390/ijms19113466 PMID: 30400561
  133. Botti, J.; Djavaheri-Mergny, M.; Pilatte, Y.; Codogno, P. Autophagy signaling and the cogwheels of cancer. Autophagy, 2006, 2(2), 67-73. doi: 10.4161/auto.2.2.2458 PMID: 16874041
  134. Antunes, F.; Erustes, A.G.; Costa, A.J.; Nascimento, A.C.; Bincoletto, C.; Ureshino, R.P.; Pereira, G.J.S.; Smaili, S.S. Autophagy and intermittent fasting: The connection for cancer therapy? Clinics, 2018, 73(Suppl. 1), e814s. doi: 10.6061/clinics/2018/e814s PMID: 30540126
  135. Tiwari, S.; Sapkota, N.; Han, Z. Effect of fasting on cancer: A narrative review of scientific evidence. Cancer Sci., 2022, 113(10), 3291-3302. doi: 10.1111/cas.15492 PMID: 35848874
  136. Amaravadi, R.; Kimmelman, A.C.; White, E. Recent insights into the function of autophagy in cancer. Genes Dev., 2016, 30(17), 1913-1930. doi: 10.1101/gad.287524.116 PMID: 27664235
  137. Liu, J.; Debnath, J. The evolving, multifaceted roles of autophagy in cancer. Adv. Cancer Res., 2016, 130, 1-53. doi: 10.1016/bs.acr.2016.01.005 PMID: 27037750
  138. Degenhardt, K.; Mathew, R.; Beaudoin, B.; Bray, K.; Anderson, D.; Chen, G.; Mukherjee, C.; Shi, Y.; Gélinas, C.; Fan, Y.; Nelson, D.A.; Jin, S.; White, E. Autophagy promotes tumor cell survival and restricts necrosis, inflammation, and tumorigenesis. Cancer Cell, 2006, 10(1), 51-64. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2006.06.001 PMID: 16843265
  139. White, E.; Mehnert, J.M.; Chan, C.S. Autophagy, metabolism, and cancer. Clin. Cancer Res., 2015, 21(22), 5037-5046. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-15-0490 PMID: 26567363
  140. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available from: https://covid19.who.int (Accessed on: 2023 Jun 25).
  141. van Eijk, L.E.; Binkhorst, M.; Bourgonje, A.R.; Offringa, A.K.; Mulder, D.J.; Bos, E.M.; Kolundzic, N.; Abdulle, A.E.; van der Voort, P.H.J.; Olde Rikkert, M.G.M.; van der Hoeven, J.G.; den Dunnen, W.F.A.; Hillebrands, J.L.; van Goor, H. COVID-19: Immunopathology, pathophysiological mechanisms, and treatment options. J. Pathol., 2021, 254(4), 307-331. doi: 10.1002/path.5642 PMID: 33586189
  142. Wang, Z.; Fu, Y.; Guo, Z.; Li, J.; Li, J.; Cheng, H.; Lu, B.; Sun, Q. Transmission and prevention of SARS-CoV-2. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 2020, 48(5), 2307-2316. doi: 10.1042/BST20200693 PMID: 33084885
  143. Hannan, M.A.; Rahman, M.A.; Rahman, M.S.; Sohag, A.A.M.; Dash, R.; Hossain, K.S.; Farjana, M.; Uddin, M.J. Intermittent fasting, a possible priming tool for host defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection: Crosstalk among calorie restriction, autophagy and immune response. Immunol. Lett., 2020, 226, 38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2020.07.001 PMID: 32659267
  144. McGonagle, D.; Sharif, K.; O’Regan, A.; Bridgewood, C. The role of cytokines including interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced pneumonia and macrophage activation syndrome-like disease. Autoimmun. Rev., 2020, 19(6), 102537. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102537 PMID: 32251717
  145. Wang, W.; Liu, X.; Wu, S.; Chen, S.; Li, Y.; Nong, L.; Lie, P.; Huang, L.; Cheng, L.; Lin, Y.; He, J. Definition and risks of cytokine release syndrome in 11 critically Ill COVID-19 patients with pneumonia: Analysis of disease characteristics. J. Infect. Dis., 2020, 222(9), 1444-1451. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa387 PMID: 32601708
  146. Umare, V.; Pradhan, V.; Nadkar, M.; Rajadhyaksha, A.; Patwardhan, M.; Ghosh, K.K.; Nadkarni, A.H. Effect of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β) on clinical manifestations in Indian SLE patients. Mediators Inflamm., 2014, 2014, 1-8. doi: 10.1155/2014/385297 PMID: 25548434
  147. Qi, J.; Gan, L.; Fang, J.; Zhang, J.; Yu, X.; Guo, H.; Cai, D.; Cui, H.; Gou, L.; Deng, J.; Wang, Z.; Zuo, Z. Beta-Hydroxybutyrate: A dual function molecular and immunological barrier function regulator. Front. Immunol., 2022, 13, 805881. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.805881 PMID: 35784364
  148. Hirschberger, S.; Strauß, G.; Effinger, D.; Marstaller, X.; Ferstl, A.; Müller, M.B.; Wu, T.; Hübner, M.; Rahmel, T.; Mascolo, H.; Exner, N.; Heß, J.; Kreth, F.W.; Unger, K.; Kreth, S. Very-low-carbohydrate diet enhances human T- cell immunity through immunometabolic reprogramming. EMBO Mol. Med., 2021, 13(8), e14323. doi: 10.15252/emmm.202114323 PMID: 34151532
  149. Karagiannis, F.; Peukert, K.; Surace, L.; Michla, M.; Nikolka, F.; Fox, M.; Weiss, P.; Feuerborn, C.; Maier, P.; Schulz, S.; Al, B. Impaired ketogenesis ties metabolism to T cell dysfunction in COVID-19. Nature, 2022, 609, 801-807.
  150. Chapman, N.M.; Chi, H. Metabolic adaptation of lymphocytes in immunity and disease. Immunity, 2022, 55(1), 14-30. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.12.012 PMID: 35021054
  151. Wang, Y.; Chi, H. Fasting as key tone for COVID immunity. Nature Metabolism, 2022, 4, 1229-1231.
  152. Sousa, A.M.M.; Meyer, K.A.; Santpere, G.; Gulden, F.O.; Sestan, N. Evolution of the human nervous system function, structure, and development. Cell, 2017, 170(2), 226-247. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.06.036 PMID: 28708995
  153. Rr, A. Principles of Neural Science Kandel. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/11639811/Principles_ of_Neural_Science_Kandel_4th_Ed (Accessed on: 2023 Jul 6).
  154. Mattson, M.P.; Moehl, K.; Ghena, N.; Schmaedick, M.; Cheng, A. Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2018, 19(2), 81-94. doi: 10.1038/nrn.2017.156 PMID: 29321682
  155. Stampanoni Bassi, M.; Iezzi, E.; Gilio, L.; Centonze, D.; Buttari, F. Synaptic plasticity shapes brain connectivity: Implications for network topology. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2019, 20(24), 6193. doi: 10.3390/ijms20246193 PMID: 31817968
  156. Alirezaei, M.; Kemball, C.C.; Flynn, C.T.; Wood, M.R.; Whitton, J.L.; Kiosses, W.B. Short-term fasting induces profound neuronal autophagy. Autophagy, 2010, 6(6), 702-710. doi: 10.4161/auto.6.6.12376 PMID: 20534972
  157. Tavernarakis, N. Regulation and roles of autophagy in the brain. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 2020, 1195, 33. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-32633-3_5 PMID: 32468455
  158. Vasconcelos, A.R; Kinoshita, P.F; Yshii, L.M; Orellana, A.M.M; Böhmer, A.E; de Sá Lima , L; Alves, R; Andreotti, D.Z; Marcourakis, T; Scavone, C; Kawamoto, E.M Effects of intermittent fasting on age-related changes on Na,K-ATPase activity and oxidative status induced by lipopolysaccharide in rat hippocampus. Neurobiol. Aging, 2015, 36(5), 1914-1923.
  159. Cheng, A.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Maharana, C.; Lu, D.; Peng, W.; Liu, Y.; Wan, R.; Marosi, K.; Misiak, M.; Bohr, V.A.; Mattson, M.P. Mitochondrial SIRT3 mediates adaptive responses of neurons to exercise and metabolic and excitatory challenges. Cell Metab., 2016, 23(1), 128-42.
  160. Vasconcelos, A.R.; Vasconcelos, A.R.; Vasconcelos, A.R.; Vasconcelos, A.R. Metabolic reprograming of microglia in the regulation of the innate inflammatory response. Front Immunol., 2020, 11, 493.
  161. Vasconcelos, A.R.; Yshii, L.M.; Viel, T.A.; Buck, H.S.; Mattson, M.P.; Scavone, C.; Kawamoto, E.M. Intermittent fasting attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation and memory impairment. J. Neuroinflammation., 2014, 11, 85.
  162. Mattson, M.P.; Longo, V.D.; Harvie, M. Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes. Ageing Res. Rev., 2017, 39, 46-58. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.005 PMID: 27810402
  163. Madeo, F.; Carmona-Gutierrez, D.; Hofer, S.J.; Kroemer, G. Caloric restriction mimetics against age-associated disease: Targets, mechanisms, and therapeutic potential. Cell Metab., 2019, 29(3), 592-610. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.01.018 PMID: 30840912
  164. Beli, E.; Yan, Y.; Moldovan, L.; Vieira, C.P.; Gao, R.; Duan, Y.; Prasad, R.; Bhatwadekar, A.; White, F.A.; Townsend, S.D.; Chan, L.; Ryan, C.N.; Morton, D.; Moldovan, E.G.; Chu, F.I.; Oudit, G.Y.; Derendorf, H.; Adorini, L.; Wang, X.X.; Evans-Molina, C.; Mirmira, R.G.; Boulton, M.E.; Yoder, M.C.; Li, Q.; Levi, M.; Busik, J.V.; Grant, M.B. Restructuring of the gut microbiome by intermittent fasting prevents retinopathy and prolongs survival in db/db mice. Diabetes, 2018, 67(9), 1867-1879. doi: 10.2337/db18-0158 PMID: 29712667
  165. Weir, HJ.; Yao, P.; Huynh, F.K.; Escoubas, C.C.; Goncalves, R.L.; Burkewitz, K.; Laboy, R.; Hirschey, M.D.; Mair, W.B. Dietary restriction and AMPK increase lifespan via mitochondrial network and peroxisome remodeling. Cell Metab., 2017, 26(6), 884-896.e5.
  166. Hassan, S.; Hassan, F.; Abbas, N.; Hassan, K.; Khatib, N.; Edgim, R.; Fadol, R.; Khazim, K. Does ramadan fasting affect hydration status and kidney function in CKD patients? Ann. Nutr. Metab., 2018, 72(3), 241-247. doi: 10.1159/000486799 PMID: 29518785
  167. Bello, A.K.; Kurzawa, J.; Osman, M.A.; Olah, M.E.; Lloyd, A.; Wiebe, N.; Habib, S.; Qarni, U.; Shojai, S.; Pauly, R.P. Impact of Ramadan fasting on kidney function and related outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open, 2019, 9(8), e022710. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022710 PMID: 31446401
  168. Al Mahayni, A.O.; Alkhateeb, S.S.; Abusaq, I.H.; Al Mufarrih, A.A.; Jaafari, M.I.; Bawazir, A.A. Does fasting in Ramadan increase the risk of developing urinary stones? Saudi Med. J., 2018, 39(5), 481-486. doi: 10.15537/smj.2018.5.22160 PMID: 29738008
  169. Pickel, L.; Iliuta, I.A.; Scholey, J.; Pei, Y.; Sung, H.K. Dietary interventions in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Adv. Nutr., 2022, 13(2), 652-666. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmab131 PMID: 34755831
  170. Rojas-Morales, P.; León-Contreras, J.C.; Aparicio-Trejo, O.E.; Reyes-Ocampo, J.G.; Medina-Campos, O.N.; Jiménez-Osorio, A.S.; González-Reyes, S.; Marquina- Castillo, B.; Hernández-Pando, R.; Barrera-Oviedo, D.; Sánchez-Lozada, L.G.; Pedraza-Chaverri, J.; Tapia, E. Fasting reduces oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and fibrosis induced by renal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2019, 135, 60-67. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.02.018 PMID: 30818054
  171. Rojas-Morales, P.; Tapia, E.; León-Contreras, J.C.; González-Reyes, S.; Jiménez-Osorio, A.S.; Trujillo, J.; Pavón, N.; Granados-Pineda, J.; Hernández-Pando, R.; Sánchez-Lozada, L.G.; Osorio-Alonso, H.; Pedraza- Chaverri, J. Mechanisms of fasting-mediated protection against renal injury and fibrosis development after ischemic acute kidney injury. Biomolecules, 2019, 9(9), 404. doi: 10.3390/biom9090404 PMID: 31443530
  172. Huynh, L.M.; Liang, K.; Osman, M.M.; El-Khatib, F.M.; Dianatnejad, S.; Towe, M.; Roberts, N.H.; Yafi, F.A. Organic diet and intermittent fasting are associated with improved erectile function. Urology, 2020, 144, 147-151. doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2020.07.019 PMID: 32717247
  173. Lettieri-Barbato, D.; Aquilano, K. Pushing the limits of cancer therapy: The nutrient game. Front. Oncol., 2018, 8, 148. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2018.00148 PMID: 29868472
  174. AlHilli, M.M.; Bae-Jump, V. Diet and gut microbiome interactions in gynecologic cancer. Gynecol. Oncol., 2020, 159(2), 299-308. doi: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2020.08.027 PMID: 32933758
  175. Cienfuegos, S.; Corapi, S.; Gabel, K.; Ezpeleta, M.; Kalam, F.; Lin, S.; Pavlou, V.; Varady, K.A. Effect of intermittent fasting on reproductive hormone levels in females and males: A review of human trials. Nutrients, 2022, 14(11), 2343. doi: 10.3390/nu14112343 PMID: 35684143
  176. Jakubowicz, D.; Barnea, M.; Wainstein, J.; Froy, O. Effects of caloric intake timing on insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism in lean women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Clin. Sci., 2013, 125(9), 423-432. doi: 10.1042/CS20130071 PMID: 23688334
  177. Li, C.; Xing, C.; Zhang, J.; Zhao, H.; Shi, W.; He, B. Eight-hour time-restricted feeding improves endocrine and metabolic profiles in women with anovulatory polycystic ovary syndrome. J. Transl. Med., 2021, 19(1), 148. doi: 10.1186/s12967-021-02817-2 PMID: 33849562
  178. Kim, B.H.; Joo, Y.; Kim, M.S.; Choe, H.K.; Tong, Q.; Kwon, O. Effects of intermittent fasting on the circulating levels and circadian rhythms of hormones. Endocrinol. Metab., 2021, 36(4), 745-756. doi: 10.3803/EnM.2021.405 PMID: 34474513
  179. Varady, K.A. Intermittent versus daily calorie restriction: Which diet regimen is more effective for weight loss? Obes. Rev., 2011, 12(7), e593-e601. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00873.x PMID: 21410865
  180. Halberg, N; Henriksen, M; Söderhamn, N; Stallknecht, B; Ploug, T; Schjerling, P Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985)., 2005, 99(6), 2128-36.
  181. Tinsley, G.M.; La Bounty, P.M. Effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and clinical health markers in humans. Nutr. Rev., 2015, 73(10), 661-674. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuv041 PMID: 26374764
  182. Longo, V.D.; Mattson, M.P. Fasting: Molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Cell Metab., 2014, 19(2), 181-192. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.12.008 PMID: 24440038
  183. Faris, M.; Jahrami, H.; Abdelrahim, D.; Bragazzi, N.; BaHammam, A. The effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on liver function in healthy adults: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 2021, 178, 108951. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2021.108951 PMID: 34273453
  184. Pouwels, S.; Sakran, N.; Graham, Y.; Leal, A.; Pintar, T.; Yang, W.; Kassir, R.; Singhal, R.; Mahawar, K.; Ramnarain, D. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A review of pathophysiology, clinical management and effects of weight loss. BMC Endocr. Disord., 2022, 22(1), 63. doi: 10.1186/s12902-022-00980-1 PMID: 35287643
  185. Ebrahimi, S.; Gargari, B.P.; Aliasghari, F.; Asjodi, F.; Izadi, A. Ramadan fasting improves liver function and total cholesterol in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res., 2020, 90(1-2), 95-102.

Supplementary files

Supplementary Files
Action
1. JATS XML
Download

Copyright (c) 2024 Bentham Science Publishers